Cocept Analysis: Adaptation

The Concept of Adaptation Using Sis. Callista Roy's Model of Adaptation A Concept Analysis St. Augustine's College Exploring the Concept of Adaptation Adaptation has long been described as one of the mean tools of human and animal survival. A chameleon changes its color to hide from a predator, a child becomes withdrawn to deal with the death of a loved one or a soldier learns how to walk with a prosthetic limb after the traumatic amputation of a leg due to injury.All of these situations describe a form of adaptation on behalf of the individual in order to deal with a stressful situation. According to Sister Callista Roy (2009)† adaptation is the process and outcome whereby thinking and feeling persons as individuals or in groups use conscious awareness and choice to create human and environmental integration† (McEwen & Wills, 2011). The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of adaptation in the hope to bring clarification to the use of the term in nursing resea rch and practice. This will be done in the form of a concept analysis.A concept analysis is the rigorous process of bringing clarity to the definition of the concepts used in science (McEwen & Wills, 2011). The concept analysis process of Walker and Avant (2005) includes selection of a concept, determining the aims or purpose of the concept, identifying all the possible uses of the concept, determining the defining attributes, identification of model cases: identifying borderline, related, contrary, invented and illegitimate cases, identifying antecedents, consequences and lastly defining the empirical referents (McEwen & Wills, 2011).The concept analysis process is important because most of nursing theory has been based on concepts adopted from other disciplines, so it is necessary to explore these concepts to discover their relevance to the nursing profession (McEwen & Wills, 2011). Aim of the Analysis The aim of this concept analysis of adaptation is to discover what descriptors of this concept make it more relevant to nursing practice and research.As pointed out by Rodgers and Knafl (2000) the value of discussing concepts is to promote the clarification and refinement of an idea that is intended to contribute to the problem solving efforts of a discipline (Holden, 2005). Literature Review of the Theory Adaptation Taylor’s (1983) cognitive adaptation theory states that individuals use positive thought processes as a form of adapting to stressful circumstances. Engaging in mildly positive self-relevant distortions enables an individual to maintain an optimistic outlook, enhance self-esteem and encourage a sense of mastery when facing a threatening event (Henselmans et al. 2009). Taylor proposes that these positive thoughts give an individual a sense of control which will then force the individual to take constructive action when dealing with a stressful situation. Schkade and Schultz (1992) in their occupational adaptation theory proposed that there i s a normal process that individuals go through as they strive for competency on their jobs. There is an interaction with the environment that drives the individual to attain mastery over work related challenges.In this process the individual evaluates their responses to the challenges based on an internal sense of effectiveness or satisfaction. The self-assessment phase is the only means of evaluating the level of adaptation in this theory. Charmaz (1995) proposed that adaptation for most people is a gradual process of evolution where an altered individual changes to accommodate bodily and functional loss (Livneh & Parker, 2005). The changes in the individuals result from a recognition of a loss of their former self -image and the adaptation only comes about after that realization.Yoshida (1993) believes that adaptation through identity reconstruction only comes about after the individual struggles between their identity as a disabled person and their identity as their former self ( Livneh & Parker, 2011). There is a constant internal struggle to which the outcome cannot be predicted. Lewin speaks of a reciprocal, interactive process of adaptation that involves the individual and the environment (Livneh & Parker, 2011). The environment consists of internal and external factors that influence the adaptation process.The internal factors can include type and severity of illness and/or the individual’s concept of self. The external factors include variables such as physical, social and vocational aspects of the external environment. The level of adaptation will depend on the interaction between the individual and these environmental factors. Uses of the Concept Adaptation as defined by Merriam-Webster (2013) is the adjustment to environmental conditions, adjustment of a sense organ to the intensity or quality of stimulation. Synonyms for adaptation: acclimation, accommodation, acclimatization, adjustment and conformation.Charles Darwin theory of natural sele ction states that organisms adapt to their environment to become better fitted to survive and that they pass these genes on to the next generation ( ). According to Natural Resources Canada (NRC) adaptation includes activities that are taken before impacts are observed (anticipatory) and after impacts have been felt (reactive). Both anticipatory and reactive adaptation can be planned as a result of deliberate policy decisions and reactive adaptation can also occur spontaneously (NRC, 2008). Defining Attributes Two defining attributes of adaptation are interaction and environment.A common theme that emerged during the review of information researched for this topic was that adaptation occurs after interaction between the individual and the environment. The Roy adaptation model (Roy & Andrews, 1999) viewed the individual as a holistic adaptive system who responds to different stimuli in the environment, he/she processes changes in the environment through emotional channels that involv e perception, learning, judgment and emotion (Cunningham, 2002). Model Cases Walker & Avant (2010) state that a model case illustrates or exemplifies the concept and includes demonstrations of all defining ttributes (CCN, 2012). A model case of adaptation could be a previously withdrawn 45 year old female patient with a new colostomy. The patient Mrs. X shied away from learning how to care for her colostomy, refusing even to look at the colostomy during colostomy care. Subsequently Mrs. X now asks appropriate questions, has become more involved even to the point of changing her colostomy appliance. During this process the nurse encourages the patient by asking open ended questions about her feelings, the nurse also assures the patient that when she is ready to talk or learn someone will be available to answer her questions.Mr. L is a 35 year old newly diagnosed diabetic, who is open and receptive to diet and lifestyle changes that has become necessary to control his blood glucose le vels. The adaptation can be seen by the patient taking part in the discussion with his nutritionist, asking appropriate questions and requesting information about resources that will be available to him should he need more support in adjusting to his new lifestyle changes. A contrary case is an example that does not display the attributes of the concept. Ms.B a 25 year old that received a right lower limb amputation due to a car accident refuses to take part in physiotherapy. In fact, she is somewhat hostile to the healthcare team and does not take part in any discussion about her plan of care and her rehabilitation. Attempts by the nurses to build a therapeutic relationship by asking open ended questions and sitting with the patient to offer comfort and support are not acknowledged. Related cases, according to Walker & Avant (2010), include most but not all of the attributes that relate to adaptation (CCN, 2012).Safety in many cases can be related to adaptation. Nurses find that th ey will have to step in and modify a patient’s environment to aid in the adjustment to an ongoing ailment. This may include dimming the lights, providing a quiet atmosphere and limiting visitors for a patient that has a dissecting aortic aneurysm. The nurse understands that it is important for this individual to have a calm quiet environment he/she also knows the importance of administering antihypertensive medication and sedative as needed to achieve an internal environment that is conducive to this person’s health.Providing safety may also come in the form of providing a clutter free environment for all patients. This includes ensuring that the bed is in the lowest position, all electrical cords are secured properly and the patient’s belongings and the call light are within the patient’s reach. These little changes go a long way in helping people adjust to the strange environment of a hospital room and by performing these tasks the nurse is fulfilling h is/her role of promoting adaptation according to Roy’s Adaptation Model. Antecedents and ConsequencesAccording to Walker and Avant (1995), antecedents are the events or incidents that happen before the concept (Cheng, Foster & Huang, 2003). An antecedent to adaptation is stress, stress which can affect the body as a result of an accident, infection or an illness. The onset of a physical trauma or the diagnosis of a life threatening illness can set into motion a chain of psychosocial experiences, reaction or responses (Livneh & Parker, 2005). The goal of nursing at this point would be to promote adaptation (McEwen & Wills, 2011).The needs of the patient will be assessed and the plan for an appropriate intervention should be formulated. Control over the situation maybe beyond the scope of nursing practice however, the goal is for the patient to try to achieve integration with the environment, external or internal. Consequences are the events or incidents that happen as a result of the concept. A consequence of adaptation is that a change has taken place, a change in mindset or behavior. A patient that was not able to ambulate without assistance may now be able to walk around their home using crutches or a cane.The newly diagnosed breast cancer patient is no longer fearful because she has developed a positive outlook about her disease. She has started to look for support groups and researching natural intervention to help battle her illness. Taylor (1983) proposed that self -generated control perceptions prevent helplessness and promotes constructive thought and action (Henselmans et al. , 2009). Empirical Referents Walker and Avant (2010) define an empirical referent as a measurement tool or mechanism for the demonstration of the existence of the defining attributes of a concept (CCN, 2012).Cognitive adaptation is measured by the individual’s feelings of control or mastery over the illness as well as the individual’s positive outlook relatin g to their illness. One of the tools used to measure optimism is the Life Oriented Test (LOT). It consists of eight items and yields a total score between 0 and 32. An example of a question is: ‘I always look on the bright side of life’. The participants are asked to rate this statement on a 5 point scale, ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The Pearlin and Schooler’s Mastery Scale is used to assess feelings of control over events.Seven items are used to assess global beliefs of perceived control rather than events being controlled by fate. Five items are phrased in a positive way and two items in a negative way. An example of a statement is ‘I have little control over the things that happen to me’. A five point scale is used here also 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher points on both scales, indicates a higher level of perceived control or optimism which points to positive adaptation. Conclusion Adaptation is a n innate basic function that all humans and organisms must have to overcome different stressors in life.How one adapts is closely related to our coping strategies. Adaptation can be positive which results in human and environmental integration (McEwen & Wills, 2011). The nurse’s role in this process is to adapt to the patient’s needs by performing a thorough assessment to be able to provide the tools needed for the individual to positively adjust to complications that they are experiencing. References Chamberlain College of Nursing. (2012). NR 501 Theoretical basis for advanced nursing practice. Concept Analysis: Directions with Scoring Rubric.St Louis, MO: Author Chen, S. F. , Foster, R. L. , & Huang, C. Y. (2003). Concept analysis of pain. Tzu Chi Nursing Journal 2:3 Cunningham, D. A. (2005). Adaptation of Roy’s adaptation model when caring for a group of women coping with menopause. Journal of Community Health Nursing 19(1), 49-60 Henselmans, I. , Sanderman, R. , Helgeson, S. V. , de Vries, J. , Smink, A. , & Ranchor, A. V. (2010). Personal control over the cure of breast cancer: Adaptiveness, underlying beliefs and correlates. Psycho-Oncology 19: 525-534 Holden, L.M. (2005). Complex adaptive systems: Concept analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing 52 (6) 651-657 Honoch, L. , & Randall, M. P. (2005). Psychological adaptation to disability: Perspectives from chaos and complexity theory. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 17-28 Lorre, G. A. , Schkade, J. K. , & Ishee, J. H. (2004). Content validity of the relative mastery measurement scale: A measure of occupational adaptation. Occupational, Participation and Health 24 (3) McEwen, M. , & Wills, E. (2011). Theoretical basis for nursing (3rd ed. . Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health. Merriam-Webster. com. (2013). Adaptation. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/adaptation Stiegelis, H. E. , Hagedoorn, M. , Sanderman, R. , Van der Ze e, K. I. , Buunk, B. P. , & Van den Bergh, A. C. M. (2003). Cognitive adaptation: A comparison of cancer patients and healthy references. British Journal of Health Psychology 8 303-318 What is Adaptation? (2008) Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved from: www. nrcan. gc. ca

Brazil Will Eventually Become Economic Powerhouse Essay

Currently, Brazil with its population hitting 186. 6 million has the ninth largest economy in the world (Jaeger, p. 2). Since the beginning of the 21st century the country has been enjoying a well-established economic stability, low inflation, high productivity rates and developing macro-economic infrastructure. Currently, Brazilian economic indexes are gradually improving in their dynamics, though some of them still remain on the average level for Latin American region. In particular, GDP growth in 2006 was hardly over 3% (Estevao). Since the middle of the last century Brazil was expected to develop shortly into â€Å"the world’s next economic power. † However due to two-decade long economic stagnation and financial crises in the mid-1980s Brazil has lost its positions and fell short of expectations regarding its economic development, especially in comparison with rapidly progressing economies of the countries in Asian region, such as China, Taiwan or South Korea, etc. (Adrogue, Cerisola & Gelos, p. 3). Nevertheless, in the 1990s a series of well-planned governmental policies were implemented and Brazilian economy went through a number of structural economic changes, which allowed achieving certain stability, especially on macro-economic level. Therefore, country’s inflation was taken under control, external debt was considerably decreased, and numerous measures directed on reformation of financial infrastructure, liberalization of trade, achieving price stability and stimulating general economic growth were undertaken (Jaeger, p. 5-6). This way the country managed to improve its international image and gain a reputation of â€Å"trustworthy† nation again. As a result, since recent times Brazil has been receiving a lot of private investments. Foreign investors are attracted by high return of their funds and relatively low risks. Such significant factors, as good demographic situation in the country, high interest rates, stable political situation and prudent governmental policies regarding overseas trade, created absolutely favorable environment for foreign businessmen, who intend to invest their funds and start their businesses in Brazil. Good investment climate and economic stability are not the only factors determining future rise of Brazilian economy. In addition to that, Brazil is very rich with various natural resources. Those are, first of all, huge territories of arable lands available for cultivation of a great variety of crops. Moreover, there are large mineral and plant resources including iron, copper and even gold, which have not been even properly explored yet. That is why there are great opportunities for different industrial and agricultural companies in Brazil. Undoubtedly, there are some problems which require immediate attention and solution in order to fasten economic development and achieve high levels of social wellbeing. Those include corrupted educational system and problems with human capital, insufficient financial and fiscal systems, poverty and income disparities, etc. Certainly, such reforms are hard to implement within some short period of time, therefore, positive transformations are expected to become effective gradually. Nevertheless, modern Brazil can be called the â€Å"country of the future† with its huge national market, cheap working power, abundance of natural resources, and many other factors determining a large long-term economic potential of the country (Jaeger, p. 2). Great economic stability and openness, steady increase in manufacturing and consumption, establishment of new international trade connections and other fundamentals will definitely contribute greatly to future prosperity and economic power of the country. Works Cited: Estevao, Marcello. â€Å"Brazil Seeks to Unlock Economic Potential. † International Monetary Fund. 26 Feb. 2007. 25 Nov. 2007 . Jaeger, Marcus. Brazil: Economic scenarios for the next 15 years. Ed. Maria L. Lanzeni. Deutsche Bank Research. Frankfurt Am Main: Deutsche Bank AG, 2006 Adrogue, Richardo, Martin Cerisola and Gaston Gelos. Brazil’s Long-Term Growth Performance -Trying to Explain the Puzzle. International Monetary Fund, unpublished manuscript, December 2006.

Detection and Differentiation of Tomato Cell Death Essay

The lesions, yellowing, abnormal growth, and drying of tomato leaves at the early stage of the plant affect its fruit bearing. This phenomenon is ascribed to cell death which caused primarily of either â€Å"programmed cell death† or as consequences of the plant’s spontaneous response with pathological agents. Although cell death is an integral part of the plant’s development, extraneous loss of the cell results to the aforementioned consequences. Thus, proper regulation of cell death must be done. Since apoptosis and necrosis can possibly occur in plants, the determination of the type of cell death is crucial in the identification of the appropriate technique for its regulation. In this study, sterilized Solanum lycopersicoides seeds will be germinated at 25  °C culture laboratory. Prior to experimentation, the generated cells will be washed and a two-millimolar pyruvate will be added for ATP production. Then, the cells will be exposed to 2. 5 micromolar of oligomycin for ATP depletion. Also, to limit energy generation to cytosolic ATP production cell will be incubated in the 5 millimolar glucose with 2. 5 micromolar oligomycin. After this, cells will be incubated with staurosporine. Meanwhile, the cell death will be analyzed with respect to morphological criteria, intracellular proteolysis, and DNA fragmentation through conventional agarose gel electrophorosis or field inverted gel electrophoresis. While death detection of the cell will be done by means of Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay, ATP measurement will be done through luminometry. Moreover, phosphatidyl serine traslocation analysis will be done by means of Annexin-V-FLUOS technique to be followed by confocal microscopy and fluorescent-activated cell sorting. Detection and Differentiation of Tomato Cell Death Introduction The term â€Å"apoptosis† was derived from a Greek word which literally corresponds to â€Å"falling off† or â€Å"dropping off†, as analogous to abscission to signify cell death as integral part of every organism’s life cycle (Gewies, 2003). In the mid-nineteenth century, it has been noted that cell death occurs in parallel with physiological functions for every multi-cellular organism (Gewies, 2003). In connection to this, in 1964, expert postulated that cell death occurs not accidentally, but rather in a controlled sequence of steps (Gewies, 2003). Meanwhile, cell death is classified either as apoptosis or necrosis based on morphological and biochemical changes undergone by the cell (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). As such, plasma membrane of the cell may suffer necrosis due to extreme physiological conditions like hypothermia and hypertonic environment (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). This plasma membrane damage can also be induced by pathological agents and viruses. On the other hand, the cell can incur apoptosis even at normal physiological conditions, thus, often called as â€Å"programmed cell death† or â€Å"cellular suicide† (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). The â€Å"programmed cell death† involves intricate biochemical processes; pathogens and environmental stresses attack every cell by means of chemical signals. For example, death signals can be originated from malfunction in DNA repair mechanism, cytotoxic drug treatment, ligation of cell surface receptors, and irradiation (Gewies, 2003). In relation to this, plant responses to inhibit pathogenic growth and disease development by means of protective genes activation which in turn, through chemical reactions, kills the infected cells. The cellular death process then is directed by specific signals and independent biochemical processes in every cell (Dickman, Park, Oltersdorf, Li, Clemente, and French, 2001). Hence, understanding the intricacy of cell death requires an intensive knowledge on chemical principles behind apoptotic or necrotic process. Literature Review Apoptosis, on the basis of pathological and physiological conditions, serves a crucial role in the development of multicellular organisms and regulates cell populations in different tissues (Gewies, 2003). Apoptotic processes direct biological processes such as elimination of harmful cells, differentiation, immune system regulation, and homoeostasis (Gewies, 2003). Hence, apoptotic program dysfunction may lead to pathological conditions like viral infections, cancer, and even AIDS (Gewies, 2003). On the other hand, necrosis occurs when the cell’s inability to regulate homeostasis led to the passage of extraneous water and cellular ions into the cell which results to swelling and lysis (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). As a consequence, the organelles are then exposed to the extracellular fluid. In contrast, apoptosis may arise even at normal cell condition or tissue homeostasis (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). This involves chromatin accumulation, cytoplasmic and nuclear condensations, cytoplasm and nucleus transformation into apoptotic bodies that encapsulate nuclear material, ribosomes, and mitochondria (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). While in vivo necrosis results to damaged tissues causing inflammation, the apoptotic bodies formed by in vivo apoptosis are engulped by adjacent ephitelial cells or macrophages (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). Conversely, the apoptotic bodies formed by in vitro apoptosis undergo â€Å"secondary necrosis† or final swelling and bursting (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). Every human body has an estimated 1014 cells that are in continuous progress (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). In fact, hundreds of thousands cells are generated through mitosis in every second but almost equal number suffers apoptosis due to specific tasks and homeostasis regulation (Gewies, 2003). For instance, the elimination of the tail, and the separation of fingers and toes of a tadpole during its metamorphosis are all attributed to cell death (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). In addition, newly formed or perilous lymphocytes are destroyed through cell death (Schulze-Osthoff, 2008). Furthermore, programmed cell death or PCD has been observed in variety of species such as in mammals, metazoans, nematodes, insects, cnidaria, plants, and even in unicellular organisms (Gewies, 2003). Thus, cell death is scientifically viewed as essential in the functionality maintenance of an organism. Even though plants have the capability to protect themselves from pathogenic invaders through cell death, viral pestilence and antibiotic stressors, most often, are the cause of loss in tomato harvest (Xu, Rogers, and Roossink, 2004). As defensive response, cell death occurs only in the infected sites or termed as hypersensitive response (Morel and Dangl, 1997). Other means of plants’ defense are through cell wall reinforcement, phytoalexin synthesis, and defense-related genes activation (Kazan, Murray, Goulter, Llewellyn, and Manners, 1998). In hypersensitive response, the pathogen is restricted to a specific part of the plant through localized necrotic reactions (Taliansky, Ryabov, Robinson, and Palukaitis, 1998). Significance Researches showed that at some points PCD of plants and animals is similar. As such, jus like animal cells, plant cells generate apoptotic bodies during apoptosis (Greenberg, 1996). Also, DNA fragmentation is both observed in plants and animals apoptosis (Greenberg, 1996). Moreover, antiapoptotic gene, homologous to dad 1, in animal cells was also detected in plant cells (Greenberg, 1996). However, despite these similarities, differences were also noted. For instance, unlike animal cells, plant cells do not exhibit phagocytotic characteristics. In fact, dead cells of the plants may still perform important functions for the whole architectural organization of the plant (Greenberg, 1996). Hence, further exploration on the nature of PCD in plants should be done to gain an intensive understanding on the underpinning principles behind plant cell death. Similarly, yellowing, abnormal growth, and drying of tomato leaves at the early stage of the plant directly affect its photosynthetic activities. These observations are ascribed to cell death which caused primarily of either â€Å"programmed cell death† or as consequences of the plant’s spontaneous response with pathological agents (Greenberg, 1996). Although cell death is an integral part of the plant’s development, extraneous loss of the cell results to the aforementioned consequences. Thus, proper regulation of cell death must be done. Since apoptosis and necrosis can possibly occur in plants, the determination of the type of cell death is crucial in the identification of the appropriate technique for its regulation. Therefore, it is an imperative to determine the possible type of death, under specific physiological conditions, experienced by tomato cells in order to employ the appropriate intervention in regulating cell death. Experimental Design Sterilized Solanum lycopersicoides seeds will be germinated at 25  °C culture laboratory (Leist, Single, Castoldi, Kuhnle, and Nicotera, 1997). Prior to experimentation, the generated cells will be washed and in the absence of glucose, a two-millimolar pyruvate will be added for ATP production (Leist, Single, Castoldi, Kuhnle, and Nicotera, 1997). Then, the cells will be exposed to 2. 5 micromolar of oligomycin for ATP depletion. Also, to limit energy generation to cytosolic ATP production cell will be incubated in the 5 millimolar glucose and 2. 5 micromolar oligomycin concoctions (Leist, Single, Castoldi, Kuhnle, and Nicotera, 1997). After this, cells will be incubated with staurosporine or STS, a cell death inducer. Meanwhile, the cell death will be analyzed with respect to morphological criteria, intracellular proteolysis, and DNA fragmentation through conventional agarose gel electrophoresis or field inverted gel electrophoresis (Leist, Single, Castoldi, Kuhnle, and Nicotera, 1997). While death detection of the cell will be done by means of Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay or ELISA of Roche Technology, ATP measurement will be done through luminometrical technology of Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals (Leist, Single, Castoldi, Kuhnle, and Nicotera, 1997). Moreover, phosphatidyl serine or PS traslocation analysis will be done by means of Annexin-V-FLUOS technique to be followed by confocal microscopy and fluorescent-activated cell sorting or FACS analysis (Leist, Single, Castoldi, Kuhnle, and Nicotera, 1997). Cell Death Detection and Differentiation The following instrumental techniques will be utilized in this study for the detection of tomato cell death, and for the apoptotic and necrotic death differentiation. Agarose Gel Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are nucleotide polymers joined by diester bonds of the sugar units (Devor, 2005). These linkages between nucleotides give a negative overall charge to the nucleic acid polymer. Molecules with net electrical charges move predictably under electrical field. Hence, when nucleic acids are subjected to semi-solid gel matrix, they move toward the positive pole (Devor, 2005). In an agarose matrix, the mobility of nucleic acids can be formulated by treating its viscosity as gel density with respect to its entire length (Devor, 2005). This migration is then expressed as a negative exponential function of the radius of nucleic acid (Devor, 2005). ELISAPLUS Cell Death Detection ELISAPLUS is a one-step colorimetric technique of detecting cell death. It can differentiate necrosis from apoptosis with relative quantification (Roche Applied Science, 2007). This can be done without cell staining. ELISAPLUS can be utilized for culture supernatants, plasma, lysates, and serum (Roche Applied Science, 2007). About three hours after induced apoptosis, histone-complexed DNA fragments can be detected through immunochemical method (Roche Applied Science, 2007). On the other hand, the histone-complexed DNA fragments are determined directly in the culture supernatant (Roche Applied Science, 2007). Annexin-V-FLUOS Annexin-V-FLUOS, employed for microscopic and cytometric analysis, is done by means of direct fluorescence staining (Roche Applied Science, 2007). This technique can differentiate necrotic from apoptotic cells and typically used for apoptotic detection of membrane-altered cells especialy in PS-translocation (Roche Applied Science, 2007). In line with this, freshly isolated cells and suspension or adherent cell lines are the appropriate samples for this test (Roche Applied Science, 2007). As such, the PS of the cell surface and necrotic cells are stained by FLUOS or green dye and Annexin-V-Alexa or red dye respectively (Roche Applied Science, 2007). Lastly, about 15 minutes after induced apoptosis, determination test is already done (Roche Applied Science, 2007). References Devor, E. J. (2005). IDTutorial: Gel Electrophoresis. Integrated DNA Technologies. Retrieved March 6, 2009, from http://www. idtdna. com/Support/Technical/TechnicalBulletinPDF/Gel_Electrophoresis. pdf Dickman, M. B. , Park, Y. K. , Oltersdorf, T. , Li, W. , Clemente, T. and French, R. (2001). Abrogation of Disease Development in Plants Expressing Animal Antiapoptotic Genes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 19, 12, 6957-6962. Gewies, A. (2003). Introduction to Apoptosis. Apo Review. Retrieved March 6, 2009, from http://www. celldeath. de/encyclo/aporev/apointro. pdf Greenberg, J. T. (1996). Programmed Cell Death: A Way of Life for Plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93, 12094-12097. Kazan, K. , Murray, F. R. , Goulter, K. C. , Llewellyn, D. J. and Manners, J. M. (1998). Induction of Cell Death in Transgenic Plants Expressing a Fungal Glucose Oxidase. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 11, 6, 555-562. Leist, M. , Single, B. , Castoldi, A. F. , Kuhnle, S. , and Nicotera P. (1997) Intracellular ATP Concentration: A Switch Deciding Between Apoptosis and Necrosis. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 185, 1481–1486. Morel, J. B. and Dangl, J. L. (1997). The Hypersensitive Response and the Induction of Cell Death in Plants. Cell Death and Differentiation, 4, 671-683. Roche Applied Science. (2007). Apoptosis, Cell Death and Cell Proliferation, 3rd ed. Mannheim, Germany: Roche Diagnostics GmbH. Schulze-Osthoff, K. (2008). Apoptosis, Cell Death and Cell Proliferation, 4th ed. Roche Applied Science. Mannheim, Germany: Roche Diagnostics GmbH. Taliansky, M. E. , Ryabov, E. V. , Robinson, D. J. and Palukaitis, P. (1998). Tomato Cell Death Mediated by Complementary Plant viral Satellite RNA Sequences. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 11, 12, 1214-1222. Xu, P. , Rogers, S. J. and Roossink, M. (2004). Expression of Antiapoptotic Genes bcl-xl and ced-9 in Tomato Enhances Tolerance to Viral-Induced Necrosis and Antibiotic Stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 4, 15805-15810.

Global Warming Problem/Solution Essay

For the past two centuries, at an accelerating rate, the basic composition of the Earth’s atmosphere has been materially altered by the fossil-fuel effluvia of machine culture. Human-induced warming of the Earth’s climate is emerging as one of the major scientific, social, and economic issues of the twenty-first century, as the effects of climate change become evident in everyday life in locations as varied as small island nations of the Pacific Ocean and the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The â€Å"greenhouse effect† is not an idea which is new to science. It has merely become more easily detectable in our time as temperatures have risen and scientists have devised more sophisticated ways to measure and forecast atmospheric processes. The atmospheric balance of â€Å"trace† gases actually started to change beyond natural bounds at the dawn of the industrial age, with the first large-scale burning of fossil fuels. It became noticeable in the 1880s, and an important force in global climate change by about 1980. After an intensifying debate, the idea that human activity is warming the earth in potentially damaging ways became generally accepted in scientific circles by 1995. Addressing the consequences of global warming will demand, on a worldwide scale, the kind of social and economic mobilization experienced in the United States only during its birthing revolution and World War II, and therein lies a problem. The buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is a nearly invisible, incremental crisis. Carbon dioxide is not going to bomb Pearl Harbor to kick start the mobilization. Author Jonathan Weiner observes, â€Å"We do not respond to emergencies that unfold in slow motion. We do not respond adequately to the invisible† (Weiner, 1990, 241). It has been said (not for attribution) that the best thing which could happen to raise worldwide concern about global warming would be a quick collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet, which would raise worldwide sea level a notable number of feet over a very short time. When stock brokers’ feet get wet on the ground floor of New York City’s World Trade Center, all the world’s competing economic interests might mobilize together and provide the sociopolitical responses necessary to address the atmosphere’s overload of greenhouse gases before it is too late. The same water that could lap at the ground floor of the Trade Center also would ruin most farmers in Egypt and Bangladesh and slosh in the lobbies of glass towers of Hong Kong and Tokyo. Perhaps, only then, might all of humankind heed the implications of Chief Seah’tl’s farewell speech a century and a half ago. We may be brothers (and sisters) after all. So far, humankind’s collective nervous system—national and international leadership, public opinion, and so forth—hasn’t done much about global warming. As of this writing, the flora and fauna of the planet Earth are still in the position of a laboratory frog submerged in steadily warming water. This is not a secret crisis, just a politically unpalatable one. Al Gore, in Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit, raised a sociopolitical call for mobilization against human-induced warming of the Earth: â€Å"This point is crucial. A choice to ‘do nothing’ in response to the mounting evidence is actually a choice to continue and even accelerate the reckless environmental destruction that is creating the catastrophe at hand† (Gore, 1992, 37). In his book, Gore, then a U. S. senator, called for a â€Å"global Marshall Plan,† to include stabilization of world population, the rapid creation and development of environmentally appropriate technologies, and â€Å"a comprehensive and ubiquitous change in the economic ‘rules of the road’ by which we measure the impact of our decisions on the environment† (Gore, 1992, 306). Eight years after Gore issued his manifesto, fossil-fuel emissions had risen in the United States. Gore had captured the Democratic Party’s nomination for president of the United States, and global warming had slipped from campaign radar. From this vantage point, one imagines the world lurching through the twenty-first century as global public opinion slowly galvanizes around year after year of high temperature records, and as public policy only slowly begins to catch up with the temperature curve. The temperature (and especially the dewpoint) may wake the global frog before he becomes poached meat. Whatever the outcome of the public policy debate, the odds are extremely high that the weather of the year 2100 will be notably warmer than today, as greenhouse â€Å"forcing† exerts an ever-stronger role in the grand dance of the atmosphere which produces climate. Ross Gelbspan observes, â€Å"Global warming need not require a reduction of living standards, but it does demand a rapid shift in patterns of fuel consumption—reduced use of oil, coal, and the lighter-carboned natural gas to an economy more reliant on solar energy, fuel cells, hydrogen gas, wind, biomass, and other renewable energy sources. It is doubtful that capitalistic market forces will bring about this shift on their own, because market prices of fossil fuels do not incorporate their environmental costs. † (Gelbspan, 2004) George Woodwell has been quoted as saying, â€Å"[For] all practical purposes, the era of fossil fuels has passed, and it’s time to move on to the new era of renewable sources of energy. † The other alternative, says Woodwell, is to accept the fact that â€Å"[t]he Earth is not simply moving toward a new equilibrium in temperature†¦. It is entering a period of continuous, progressive, open-ended warming† (Gordon and Suzuki, 2001, 219). In Jeremy Leggett’s opinion, â€Å"The uniquely frustrating thing about global warming—to the many people who see its dangers—is that the solutions are obvious. There is no denying, however, that creating the necessary changes will require paradigm shifts in human behavior—particularly in the field of cooperation between nation-states—which have literally no precedent in human history†¦. There is no single issue in human affairs that is of greater importance. † (Leggett, 2000, 457) According to a Greenpeace Report edited by Leggett, â€Å"The main routes to surviving the greenhouse threat are energy efficiency, renewable forms of energy production†¦less greenhouse-gas-intensive agriculture, stopping deforestation, and reforestation† (Leggett, 2000, 462). Greenpeace also recommends redirecting spending away from armaments and toward development of a sustainable energy for the future of humankind (Leggett, 2000, 470). Of the broader picture, Michael MacCracken writes, â€Å"The underlying challenge is for industrialized society to achieve a balanced and sustainable coexistence with the environment, one that permits use of the environment as a resource, but in a way that preserves its vitality and richness for future generations†¦. The challenge [is] to transform our ways before the world is irrevocably changed†¦ toward displacing militarization and the ever-increasing push for greater national consumption as the primary driving forces behind industrial activity. † (MacCracken, 2001, 35) According to Donald Goldberg and Stephen Porter of the Center for International Global Law: â€Å"The Clinton administration has bungled repeated chances to initiate domestic measures. For example, recent legislation proposed by the White House to restructure the electric utility industry could have been crafted to require utilities to reduce their carbon-dioxide emissions. In fact, the Environmental Protection Agency lobbied hard for the authority to impose a cap-and-trade program on utilities’ CO2 emissions, similar to the trading system that has lowered sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions in a cost-effective way. This was a golden opportunity, as the restructuring bill is projected to save the average consumer roughly $200 a year, which would have more than offset the cost of reducing GHG [greenhouse-gas] emissions. Unfortunately, the White House chose to forgo this opportunity. † (Goldberg and Porter, 1998) According to Goldberg and Porter, loopholes in the Kyoto Protocol, adopted at the insistence of the United States, permit richer countries to avoid many of its mandated emission reductions by purchasing allowances from other countries through the protocol’s â€Å"flexibility mechanisms. † The Buenos Aires Climate Conference (1998) negotiated a mechanism allowing trade in greenhouse gas emission rights in two markets. The first market would allow â€Å"sellers,† nations which exceed greenhouse gas-reduction targets set in the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, to offer their rights for sale to â€Å"buyers,† countries which have not met their targets. The second market, the Clean Development Mechanism, will allow industrialized countries to meet part of their greenhouse-gas-reduction quotas by transferring clean technology to poorer countries so that antipollution projects can be carried out there. â€Å"If it buys all (or most) of its reductions,† Goldberg and Porter write, â€Å"the United States will not get its own house in order. In the long run, efficiency and productivity in the U. S. economy will suffer because domestic industry will be shielded from any incentive to adapt† (Goldberg and Porter, 1998). Under these provisions, the United States could â€Å"purchase† emission reduction credits from nations, such as Russia and Ukraine, which reduced their greenhouse-gas emissions during the 1990s because their economic infrastructure collapsed. The continuing political wrangling over the Kyoto Protocol illustrates why the world is responding so slowly to the impending crisis of global warming. Climate diplomacy remains an arena dominated by competition of special (mainly national) interests. Meanwhile, a few countries, most of them in Europe, are taking steps to mitigate greenhouse forcing on their own. While British emissions of greenhouse gases by the year 2000 had fallen between five and six percent compared to the Kyoto Protocol 1990 targets, emissions in the United States rose 11 percent between 1990 and 1998. Canada’s greenhouse-gas emissions rose 13 percent during the 1990s, while several European countries (including Britain) made substantial progress toward meeting the goals of the Kyoto Protocol by reducing their greenhouse-gas emissions as much as 10 percent compared to 1990 levels. Denmark (which produces less than one percent of humankind’s greenhouse gases) underwent something of a mobilization against global warming during the 1990s. Denmark was planning â€Å"farms† of skyscraper-sized windmills in the North and Baltic seas that, if plans materialize, will supply half the nation’s electric power within 30 years. The Danish wind-energy manufacturers’ association believes that electricity produced through wind power on a large scale will be financially competitive with power from plants burning fossil fuels, which will be phased out if wind power proves itself. Svend Auken, Denmark’s environmental and energy minister, said that with half of his country’s power coming from Norwegian hydroelectric plants and the other half from wind power, the country is planning to meet its electricity needs within three decades while reducing carbon dioxide production to nearly zero. The wind farms must prove their endurance in winter storms and stand up to the corrosion of seawater, but if they can, Denmark’s windmills will prevent the production of 14 million tons of carbon dioxide a year. While the fossil-fuel economy remained firmly entrenched in most of the world at the turn of the millennium, gains were being achieved in some basic areas of energy conservation. In 1994, for example, the average person in the United States was recycling 380 pounds a year, up from 62 pounds in 1960, a 613 percent increase (Casten, 1998, 101–102). Following the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1972, the United States also made a concerted effort to limit the production of nitrous oxides by gas turbine engines. Before regulation, the typical gas turbine engine emitted 200 parts per million (p. p. m. ). Since then, several technological innovations have reduced emissions to below 10 p. p. m.. Technology was being developed in the late 1990s which could reduce the rate to two to three p. p. m. (Casten, 1998, 117–118). The problem is at once very simple, and also astoundingly complex. Increasing human populations, rising affluence, and continued dependence on energy derived from fossil fuels are at the crux of the issue. The complexity of the problem is illustrated by the degree to which the daily lives of machine-age peoples depend on fossil fuels. This dependence gives rise to an array of local, regional, and national economic interests. These interests cause tensions between nations attending negotiations to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. The cacophony of debate also illustrates the strength and diversity of established interests which are being assiduously protected. Add to the human elements of the problem the sheer randomness of climate (as well as the amount of time which passes before a given level of greenhouse gases is actually factored into climate), and the problem becomes complex and intractable enough to (thus far) seriously impede any serious, unified effort by humankind to fashion solutions. References Casten, Thomas R. (1998). Turning Off the Heat: Why America Must Double Energy Efficiency to Save Money and Reduce Global Warming. Amherst, N. Y. : Prometheus Books. Gelbspan, Ross. (2004). A Global Warming. American Prospect, 31 (March/April). Goldberg, Donald, and Stephen Porter. (1998). In Focus: Global Climate Change. Center for International Environmental Law, May. Gordon, Anita, and David Suzuki. (2001). It’s a Matter of Survival. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Gore, Albert. (1992). Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Leggett, Jeremy, ed. (2000). Global Warming: The Greenpeace Report. New York: Oxford University Press. MacCracken, Michael. (1991). Greenhouse Gases: Changing the Global Climate. In Joseph P. Knox and Ann Foley Scheuring, eds. , Global Climate Change and California. Berkeley: University of California Press, 26–39. Weiner, Jonathan. (1990). The Next One Hundred Years: Shaping the Fate of Our Living Earth. New York: Bantam Books

Discuss the arguments for and against the use of toluidine blue Essay

Discuss the arguments for and against the use of toluidine blue staining as a screening method for oral cancer in dental practic - Essay Example This paper elucidates on the arguments for and against the use of toluidine in screening for oral cancer. The use of toluidine blue in uterine and oral cancer screening was pioneered by Richart in 1962. A 1% aqueous solution of toluidine blue is painted over the target area for ten seconds followed by a rinse of 1% solution of acetic acid. The toluidine blue binds to the DNA on surface cells, causing the surface to take on a bluish hue. The amount of DNA material present may be used as an indication of suspected dysplasia or neoplasia (Richart 1962). 2.0. Arguments for toluidine screening Jones and Rankin (2008) consider toluidine blue staining as a diagnostic aid for the dental professional in the evaluation of the possible malignancy of oral lesions. The potency of staining with toluidine blue has been likened to that of brush biopsy in terms of early detection, speeding up of biopsy and subsequent diagnosis of oral cancer. Application of aqueous toluidine blue to a lesion followed by a rinsing of 1% acetic acid results in selective binding with dysplastic and malignant cells accurately. The blue stain also marks a good site to extract for biopsy. Extreme care should, however, be practiced to ensure that the dye is neither mutagenic nor carcinogenic for best results. Patton, Epstein and Kerr (2008) performed a systematic review of literature related to several adjunctive techniques used in the early detection of oral premalignant and malignant lesions or OPML, such as toluidine blue. A total of 23 articles were reviewed wherein the majority focused on the use of toluidine blue. Results of the review revealed the effectiveness of toluidine blue in diagnosing oral premalignant and malignant lesions in high-risk populations and suspected mucosal lesions. However, clinicians are advised not rely much on diagnostic adjuncts alone. A complete oral mucosal examination is recommended together with specialty referrals or tissue biopsy to correctly diagnose OPML. Epste in, Silverman, Epstein, Lonky and Bride (2008) evaluated the effects of ViziLite, a chemiluminiscent light source in conjunction with toluidine blue in the process of verifying lesions identified by oral soft tissue examinations. Lesion assessment by chemiluminiscense combined with toluidine blue staining was compared with conventional visual examination. Subsequently, the suspected lesions were subjected to biopsy and diagnosed through conventional histopathological methods. Moreover, toluidine staining was performed on lesions related to severe dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, and squamous cell carcinoma. Results of the assessment show an improvement in the brightness and sharpness of margin in 60 out of 97 identified lesions that underwent the chemiluminiscent exam. Meanwhile, toluidine staining exhibited a false positive rate of 55.26% while maintaining a 100% negative predictive value (Epstein, Silverman, Epstein, Lonky and Bride 2008). Fedele (2009) described toluidine blue as an indispensable tool in identifying the area damaged by a malignant lesion due to its ability to stain nucleic acids. This effect makes it easier to remove malignant lesions since toluidin blue clearly marks the boundaries of the lesion, thus allowing precise excision. Recent studies on the use of toluidine blue were rather limited due to the dearth of research efforts in relation to randomized controlled trials, histological diagnosis

Organisational Change Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

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Event this week Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Event this week - Assignment Example The context of the article is relevant to the past years when oil prices rose to unexpected levels, leading to low productivity and high cost of goods. This is also relevant to the dwindling Russian economy after the US influenced the price cuts to impose sanctions on the country. However, most industries are shutting down production for maintenance purposes, which reduces the oil demand across the American States. The implication for a broader international development is that the producing countries are crying foul because the reduction in prices will affect their market shares. This is because of the increasing American reserves that take advantage of the fall in prices to store additional oil. For instance, Saudi Arabia expresses fear that the reduced demand will affect future market shares and productions. The contents of the article relate to the course because it analyses the implication of reducing oil prices to economies that depend on its sales. This is evident through the effect of the prices on workers, global economies and industrial production. As a result, the concept of demand and price is clearly